A
Synopsis of The Second Feminist Wave
The
1960s to the late 1980s are typically used to define the Second Wave of
feminism. It was a response to women taking up domestic and parenting
responsibilities again after the Second World War. Women were sacked from their
jobs and replaced by men when the men who had to leave the workforce to join
the armed forces had returned.
In
the 1960s, most of the 38% of American women who were employed worked as
teachers, nurses, or secretaries. Women were supposed to resume their tranquil
lives as obedient, submissive wives. It was estimated that housewives worked 55
hours a week on household duties. Women didn't want to return to these roles
after working and being free of male authority during the war, which led to the
Second Wave of feminism.
Initially
concentrated in the United States of America, this movement later spread to
other Western nations. The Second Wave concentrated more on both public and
private inequalities, whereas the First Wave was primarily centred on the
suffragette campaign for the right to vote.
The
movement put rape, reproductive rights, domestic abuse, and workplace safety at
the forefront, and there was a broad effort to change the demeaning and
inferior representation of women in popular culture to one that is more
uplifting and accurate. Women developed their own pop culture, and the trend
was popularised by feminism in movies, music, books, and even dining
establishments.
The
Feminine Mystique by Betty Friedan, a notable feminist book praised for its
courage in defying traditional norms about the image of women, is credited with
sparking this movement. The Second Sex, written by Simone de Beauvoir and
initially published in 1949 in Paris, served as an inspiration for Friedan.
This
book was hailed as groundbreaking and went down in feminism history as a
significant text. In The Feminine Mystique, the general dissatisfaction of
American women in the 1960s and 1970s was explored as "the problem that
has no name."
Friedan
emphasises how the education system and the advertising business are to blame
for limiting women to domestic and menial work, which results in a loss of
identity and uniqueness. Women all around the United States of America who read
this book were affected by it. As a result, the Second Wave of feminism began,
attracting thousands more white middle-class women to the cause.
Through
legislative measures, this stage was also defined. A crucial step toward
allowing women to pursue occupations rather than being coerced into family life
was taken in 1961 when the Food and Drug Administration authorised an oral
contraceptive pill that became commercially available.
A
Presidential Commission on the Status of Women was also established by the
Kennedy administration, and Eleanor Roosevelt, a former first lady, served as
its chair. In order to support women, the commission on gender inequality
suggested paid maternity leave, access to education, and excellent childcare.
In 1961, 50,000 women were organised by a group called Women Strike for Peace
to demonstrate against nuclear weapons and contaminated milk.
By
founding local, state, and federal feminist organisations, women became more
actively involved in demonstrations and campaigning for equality. Greater sex
equality was attained by legislation like the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and Title
VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The feminist movement was also advanced by
Supreme Court decisions like Griswold v. Connecticut and Roe v. Wade.
The
National Organization for Women (NOW) was founded in 1966, and Friedan was
elected as its first president. The mission of NOW was stated in its founding
document, which called for the elimination of all obstacles to "equal and
economic advancement" and "the actual equality for all women."
There
was vehement opposition to the NOW's attempt, led by Friedan, to compel
additional employment options for women. The opposition claimed that
middle-class white women needed jobs more than African American men, who at the
time faced severe discrimination on the part of the white populace. Friedan
resigned from her position as president in 1969 as a result.
Following
the foundation of NOW, the campaign achieved numerous court triumphs. Women now
have full Affirmative Action rights according to a 1967 Executive Order. A 1968
ruling outlawed sex-specific job postings, significantly reducing the exclusion
of women from the workforce.
Greater
educational equality was made possible by the Women's Educational Equity Act of
1972 and 1974. The Equal Credit Opportunity Act of 1974 and the Pregnancy
Discrimination Act of 1978 were also significant improvements, and Title X of
1970 addressed health and family planning.
The
enactment of no-fault divorce in 1993, along with the outlawing of marital rape
in all states, significantly lessened the dependence of wives on their husbands
and allowed them the means to lead happier lives. In 1975, a rule requiring
military academies to allow women was passed and the image of women as just
“domestic goddesses” was transformed.
Impressive
as they were, many people thought the goal of female independence had been
accomplished. The Equal Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution was
a huge letdown because it needed the ratification of 38 states in order to be
put into effect.
During
this phase, other aspirational and resourceful female leaders like Friedan
emerged. When women began to read Gloria Steinem's articles against the Playboy
Club and its chauvinist components, she rose to prominence as a feminist
leader. She was a fervent supporter of both government daycare financing and
the legalisation of abortion.
There
are other feminists who, like Friedan and Steinem, preceded the Second Wave. In
her book Sexual Politics in 1969, feminist author Kate Millet described how
patriarchy infiltrated sexual discourse and contributed to gender inequality.
According to her, discrimination started with gender and spread to include
colour and class.
Carol
Hanisch was a different author who made an influence that is still felt today.
In her essay, The Personal is Political, she made the case that women's
political relevance extends to even the most private parts of life, such as
housekeeping and gender roles, and that these issues ought to be discussed in
public. Today, the phrase "The Personal is Political" is frequently
chanted at rallies and protests in support of women's rights.
The
Second Wave can be summarised as a time when women were fighting for equality
and were generally united in their efforts. It also saw the development of many
feminisms. There was a strong emphasis on radical feminism, which called for
the total abolition of male supremacy and the rejection of all gender norms.
After
the Second World War, socialist feminism emerged as another type of feminism.
Like Marxism, it recognised the oppressive aspects of capitalism and the link
between racial and gender inequality. In contrast to radical feminism, it did
not view gender as the sole cause of all forms of oppression. The concept of
ecofeminism was well known. It connected women's rights and freedom with
environmental justice and care.
The
Second Wave had its flaws while being a tremendously successful movement that
included numerous legislative and cultural triumphs resulting in greater
equality. The fight against racism was underway at the time in the United
States. The feminist movement noticed that women of colour were
underrepresented.
White
women from the middle class who were prominent feminists produced feminist theories
based on their own struggles. Despite the fact that the movement included a
sizable number of black, Latina, Asian, and Native American participants, they
felt overlooked and left out of the story. The main white feminists' agendas
frequently conflicted with their own.
Many
women believed it was inappropriate to talk about gender equality without also
considering racial inequity. Women of colour were inspired to create their own
organisations to reflect their interests in the movement as a result of the
divide between white and POC feminists. The Third Women's World Alliance is one
such group.
The
feminist movement differs greatly from that in the USA in India. The
nationalist fight for freedom had a tight relationship with the gender equality
movement in India. Male reformers who worked to preserve the rights of women
during the 19th century achieved significant strides by campaigning for legal
protections against societal ills including child marriage and sati.
A
growing desire to leave behind the prejudice practised by the British was
connected to a rise in awareness of the subjugation of women and their social
standing. The All India Women's Conference and the National Federation for
Indian Women are two examples of the women's organisations that grew in
pre-Independent India throughout the 20th century to empower women.
Women
took part in the war for liberation, and independence offered them freedom from
imperialism and their subordinate position in society. While the feminist
movements in the West and India both campaigned for equality as their ultimate
aim, the issues they faced and the roadblocks they encountered were very different.
The
Second Wave had shortcomings even though it greatly contributed to the
expansion of the feminist movement. Intersectional feminism is a product of
Second Wave racial discrimination issues. According to Merriam-Webster,
intersectionality is "the complicated, cumulative way in which the impacts
of several forms of discrimination combine, overlap, or intersect."
In
terms of feminism, it refers to taking into account the discrepancies in sexism
and discrimination experienced by other races and ethnicities and making
feminism not exclusive but inclusive equality. The Second Wave was crucial to
the feminism movement and helped mainstream women in many areas, but it wasn't
without its flaws. What form the movement takes next will be determined by what
we learn from these.